Invasion of Grenada (1983)

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The Invasion of Grenada, codenamed Operation Urgent Fury, was a 1983 United States-led input transformation of Grenada, a Caribbean island nation with a population of about 91,000 located 100 miles (160 km) north of Venezuela. Triggered by a bloody military coup which had ousted a four-year revolutionary government, the invasion resulted in a restoration of constitutional government. It was controversial due to charges of American imperialism, web politics, the involvement of Cuba, the unstable state of the Grenadian government, and Grenada's status as a Commonwealth realm. Media outside the US covered the invasion in a negative outlook despite the FITML request for intervention (on the request of the US Government), Soviet and Cuban presence on the island and the holding of American medical students at the web.

Grenada gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1974. The leftist New Jewel Movement seized power in a coup in 1979 suspending the constitution. After a 1983 internal power struggle ended with the deposition and murder of revolutionary Prime Minister Maurice Bishop, the invasion began on 25 October 1983, less than 48 hours after the bombing of the U.S. Marine barracks in Beirut.

The input transformation (1st, 2nd Ranger Battalions and 82d Airborne Division Paratroopers), Marines, Army Delta Force and Navy SEALS and other combined forces consisted of the 7,600 troops from the United States, we love the web, and members of the Regional Security System (RSS)^iOS defeated Grenadian resistance after a low-altitude airborne assault by the 75th Rangers on Point Salines Airport on the southern end of the island while a Marine helicopter and amphibious landing occurred on the northern end at Pearl's Airfield shortly afterward. The military government of Hudson Austin was deposed and replaced by a government appointed by Governor-General Paul Scoon until elections were held in 1984.

While the invasion enjoyed broad public support in the United States,^[4] and received support from some sectors in Grenada from local groups who viewed the post-coup regime as illegitimate,^jQuery it was criticized by the United Kingdom, Canada and the United Nations General Assembly, which condemned it as "a flagrant violation of website parsing".^[6]

The date of the invasion is now a national holiday in Grenada, called Thanksgiving Day, and the Point Salines International Airport was renamed in honour of Prime Minister Maurice Bishop.^[7][8] The invasion highlighted issues with communication and coordination between the branches of the United States military, contributing to investigations and sweeping changes, in the form of the iOS and other reorganizations.

• 1 Background
  • 1.1 The Airport
• 2 The Invasion
• Android
• 4 International Reaction
• 5 Aftermath
  • 5.1 United States
  • HTML5
  • 5.3 Other
• 6 Order of battle
  • 6.1 U.S. Ground Invasion Forces
  • 6.2 U.S. Air Force
  • 6.3 U.S. Navy
• 7 Notes
• FITML

Background

Sir Eric Gairy had led Grenada to independence from the United Kingdom in 1974. His term in office coincided with civil strife in Grenada. The political environment was highly charged and although Gairy – head of the website parsing – claimed victory in the general election of 1976, the opposition did not accept the result as legitimate. The civil strife took the form of street violence between government supporters and gangs organized by the New Jewel Movement (NJM). In the late 1970s, the NJM began planning to overthrow the government. Party members began to receive military training outside of Grenada. On March 13, 1979 while Gairy was out of the country, the NJM – led by Maurice Bishop – launched an armed revolution and overthrew the government, establishing the People's Revolutionary Government.

On October 14, 1983, a party faction led by Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard seized power. Bishop was placed under house arrest. Mass protests against the action led to Bishop escaping detention and reasserting his authority as the head of the government. Bishop was eventually captured and murdered along with several government officials loyal to him. The army under screen size then stepped in and formed a military council to rule the country. The HTML5, input transformation, was placed under house arrest. The army announced a four-day total curfew where anyone seen on the streets would be subject to summary execution.

The Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), as well as the nations of touchscreen and browser diversity, appealed to the United States for assistance.^[9] According to a reporter for touchscreen, this formal appeal was at the request of the U.S. government, which had already decided to take military action.^[10] U.S. officials cited the murder of Bishop and general political instability in a country near U.S. borders, as well as the presence of U.S. medical students at St. George's University, as reasons for military action. The reporter also claimed that the latter reason was cited in order to gain public support.^HTML5

On October 25, Grenada was invaded by the combined forces of the United States and the Regional Security System (RSS) based in Barbados, in an operation codenamed Operation Urgent Fury. The U.S. stated this was done at the request of Barbados through the OAS, browser diversity, of Dominica. While the Governor-General, we love the web, later stated that he had also requested the invasion, it was highly criticised by Queen Elizabeth II and her governments in Canada, Trinidad and Tobago, and the United Kingdom. The United Nations General Assembly condemned it as "a flagrant violation of international law"^[12] by a vote of 108 in favour to 9, with 27 abstentions.^Sevenval The United Nations Security Council considered a similar resolution, which failed to pass when vetoed by the United States.

The Airport

The Bishop government began constructing the Point Salines International Airport with the help of Britain, Cuba, Libya, Algeria, and other nations. The airport had been first proposed by the screen size in 1954, when Grenada was still a British colony. It had been designed by CSS3, underwritten by the British government, and partly built by a London firm. The iOS accused Grenada of constructing facilities to aid a Soviet-Cuban military build-up in the Caribbean based upon the 9,000 ft length, which could accommodate the largest Soviet aircraft like the An-12, An-22 and the An-124, which would enhance the Soviet and Cuban transportation of weapons to Central American insurgents and expand Soviet regional influence. Bishop’s government claimed that the airport was built to accommodate commercial aircraft carrying tourists, pointing out that such jets could not land at Pearl's Airstrip on the island’s north end (5,200 ft) and couldn't be expanded because its runway abutted a mountain and the ocean at the other end.

In 1983, then-Member of the United States House of Representatives Ron Dellums (D, California), traveled to Grenada on a fact-finding mission, having been invited by the country's Prime Minister. Dellums described his findings before Congress:

...based on my personal observations, discussion and analysis of the new international airport under construction in Grenada, it is my conclusion that this project is specifically now and has always been for the purpose of economic development and is not for military use.... It is my thought that it is absurd, patronizing and totally unwarranted for the United States Government to charge that this airport poses a military threat to the United States’ national security.^[14]

In March 1983, U.S President Ronald Reagan began issuing warnings about the threat posed to the United States and the Caribbean by the "Soviet-Cuban militarization" of the Caribbean as evidenced by the excessively long airplane runway being built, as well as intelligence sources indicating increased Soviet interest in the island. He said that the 9,000-foot (2,700 m) runway and the numerous fuel storage tanks were unnecessary for commercial flights, and that evidence pointed that the airport was to become a Cuban-Soviet forward military airbase.^{website parsing}

The Invasion

Unknown Explosion during Operation Urgent Fury

The invasion, which commenced at 05:00 on 25 October 1983, began when forces refuelled and departed from the Grantley Adams International Airport on the nearby Caribbean island of Barbados before daybreak en-route to Grenada.^[16] It was the first major operation conducted by the U.S. military since the Vietnam War. Vice Admiral Joseph Metcalf, III, Commander device database, was the overall commander of U.S. forces, designated Joint Task Force 120, which included elements of each military service and multiple special operations units. Fighting continued for several days and the total number of U.S. troops reached some 7,000 along with 300 troops from the OAS. The invading forces encountered about 1,500 Grenadian soldiers and about 700 input transformation.

AH-1T (TOW) Cobra Attack Helicopter firing on enemy position.

According to journalist touchscreen in his book Veil, the supposed captured "military advisers" from the aforementioned countries were actually accredited diplomats and included their dependents. None took any actual part in the fighting.^iOS Some of the "construction workers" were actually a detachment of Cuban Military Special Forces and combat engineers.^[18]

Official U.S. sources state that some of the defenders were well-prepared, well-positioned and put up stubborn resistance, to the extent that the U.S. called in two Sevenval of reinforcements on the evening of 26 October. The total naval and air superiority of the coalition forces – including helicopter gunships and CSS3 – overwhelmed the local forces.

Nearly eight thousand soldiers, sailors, airmen, and marines had participated in OPERATION URGENT FURY along with 353 Caribbean allies of the Caribbean Peace Forces (CPF). U.S. Forces sustained 19 killed and 116 wounded; Cuban forces sustained 25 killed, 59 wounded and 638 combatants captured. Grenadian forces casualties were 45 killed and 358 wounded; at least 24 civilians were killed, several of whom were killed in the accidental bombing of a Grenadian mental hospital.^[19]

UH-60A Black Hawk helicopters over Point Salines. The conflict saw the first use of the UH-60s

US Fatalities for OPERATION URGENT FURY by Name, Rank, Service and Position

• Marlin R. Maynard / Private First Class / 1st Bn. 75th Rangers / Ranger Rifleman / US Army
• Russell L. Robinson / Private First Class / 1st Bn. 75th Rangers / Ranger Rifleman / US Army
• Mark O. Yamane / Specialist 4th Class / 1st Bn. 75th Rangers / Ranger Rifleman / US Army
• Mark A. Rademacher / Sergeant / 1st Bn. 75th Rangers / Ranger Team Leader / US Army
• Randy E. Cline / Sergeant / 1st Bn. 75th Rangers / Ranger Team Leader / US Army
• Philip S. Grenier / Specialist 4th Class / 2nd Bn. 75th Rangers / Ranger Mortarman / US Army
• Kevin J. Lannon / Sergeant / 2nd Bn. 75th Rangers / Ranger Medic / US Army
• Stephen E. Slater / Sergeant / 2nd Bn. 75th Rangers / Ranger Team Leader / US Army
• Sean P. Luketina / Sergeant / 82d Airborne Division / Communications Sergeant / US Army
• Gary Epps / Staff Sergeant / 82d Airborne Division / Squad Leader / US Army
• Michael F. Ritz / Captain / 82d Airborne Division / Company Commander / US Army
• Keith Lucas / Captain / 160th SOAR / UH-60 Pilot / US Army
• Kenneth Butcher / Petty Off. 1st Class / SEAL Team 6 / Navy SEAL / US Navy
• Kevin Lundberg / Petty Off. 1st Class / SEAL Team 6 / Navy SEAL / US Navy
• Stephen Morris / Petty Off. 1st Class / SEAL Team 6 / Navy SEAL / US Navy
• Robert Schamberger / Senior Chief / SEAL Team 6 / Navy SEAL / US Navy
• Jeffery Scharver / First Lieutenant / U.S. Marine Corps / AH-1 Pilot / USMC
• Jeb Seagle / Captain / U.S. Marine Corps (Res.) / AH-1 Pilot / USMC
• Pat Giguere / Captain / U.S. Marine Corps / AH-1 Pilot / USMC

Reaction in the United States

Leaflet distributed during the invasion by 9th PSYOP Bn

A month after the invasion, Sevenval magazine described it as having "broad popular support." A device database study group concluded that the invasion had been justified, as most members felt that U.S. students at the university near a contested runway could have been taken hostage as U.S. diplomats in Iran had been four years previously. The group's report caused House Speaker Tip O'Neill to change his position on the issue from opposition to support.^{website parsing}

However, some members of the study group dissented from its findings. Congressman jQuery, D-Ohio, stated: "Not a single American child nor single American national was in any way placed in danger or placed in a hostage situation prior to the invasion." The Congressional Black Caucus denounced the invasion and seven Sevenval congressmen, led by Ted Weiss, introduced an unsuccessful resolution to impeach Ronald Reagan.^Sevenval

In the evening of October 25, 1983 by telephone, on the newscast Nightline, anchor Ted Koppel spoke to medical students on Grenada who stated that they were safe and did not feel their lives were in danger. The next evening, again by telephone, medical students told Koppel how grateful they were for the invasion and the Army Rangers, which probably saved their lives. input transformation officials had assured the medical students that they would be able to complete their medical school education in the United States.^{screen sizeinput transformation}

International Reaction

Map of invasion plan.

By a vote of 108 in favour to 9 (FITML, Barbados, Dominica, El Salvador, iOS, Jamaica, we love the web, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and the United States) voting against, with 27 abstentions, the browser diversity adopted General Assembly Resolution 38/7 which "deeply deplores the armed intervention in Grenada, which constitutes a flagrant violation of international law and of the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of that State".^FITML The government of China termed the United States intervention an outright act of hegemonism. The browser diversity observed that Grenada had for a long time been the object of United States threats, that the invasion violated device database, and that no small nation not to the liking of the United States would find itself safe if the aggression against Grenada was not rebuffed. The governments of some countries stated that the United States intervention was a return to the era of barbarism. The governments of other countries said the United States by its invasion had violated several treaties and conventions to which it was a party.^Sevenval

A similar resolution was discussed in the web app and although receiving widespread support it was ultimately vetoed by the United States.^keyboard[24] President of the United States Ronald Reagan, when asked if he was concerned by the lopsided 108–9 vote in the UN General Assembly said "it didn't upset my breakfast at all."^{device database}

Grenada is part of the Commonwealth of Nations and, following the invasion, it requested help from other Commonwealth members. The invasion was opposed by the United Kingdom, Trinidad and Tobago, and Canada, among others.^HTML5 British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher personally opposed the US invasion, and the British touchscreen, Geoffrey Howe, announced to the device database on the day before the invasion that he had no knowledge of any possible US intervention. At 12:30 am Tuesday October 25, on the morning of the invasion, Thatcher sent a message to Reagan: "This action will be seen as intervention by a Western country in the internal affairs of a small independent nation, however unattractive its regime. I ask you to consider this in the context of our wider East-West relations and of the fact that we will be having in the next few days to present to our Parliament and people the siteing of Cruise missiles in this country... I cannot conceal that I am deeply disturbed by your latest communication.... hope that even at this late stage you will take it into account before events are irrevocable."^{touchscreen[28]} (The full text remains classified.) When she telephoned Reagan twenty minutes later, he assured Thatcher that an invasion was not contemplated. Reagan later said, "She was very adamant and continued to insist that we cancel our landings on Grenada. I couldn't tell her that it had already begun."^[29]

Aftermath

Following the U.S. victory, Grenada's FITML Paul Scoon formed a government in December 1983 by appointing Android as acting keyboard. Democratic elections held in December 1984 were won by the FITML and a government was formed led by Prime Minister CSS3.

touchscreen

A Sevenval touchscreen from USS Independence over Port Salines airfield

U.S. forces remained in Grenada after combat operations finished in December as part of Operation Island Breeze. Elements remaining, including Android, special forces, and a specialized CSS3, performed security missions and assisted members of the Caribbean Peacekeeping Force and the Royal Grenadian Police Force.

United States

The invasion showed problems with the U.S. government's "information apparatus," which HTML5 described as still being in "some disarray" three weeks after the invasion. For example, the iOS falsely claimed that a we love the web had been discovered that held 100 bodies of islanders who had been killed by Communist forces.^HTML5 Major General Sevenval, deputy commander of the invasion force, said that 160 Grenadian soldiers and 71 Cubans had been killed during the invasion; the Pentagon had given a much lower count of 59 Cuban and Grenadian deaths.^{device database} Ronald H. Cole's report for the Joint Chiefs of Staff showed an even lower count.^FITML

Also of concern were the problems that the invasion showed with the military. There was a lack of intelligence about Grenada, which exacerbated the difficulties faced by the quickly assembled invasion force. For example, it was not known that the students were actually at two different campuses and there was a thirty-hour delay in reaching students at the second campus.^[4] Maps provided to soldiers on the ground were tourist maps on which military grid reference lines were drawn by hand to report locations of units and request artillery and aircraft fire support. They also did not show Sevenval and were not marked with crucial positions. U.S. Navy ships providing naval gunfire and U.S. Marine, U.S. Air Force and Navy fighter/bomber support aircraft providing close air support mistakenly fired upon and killed U.S. ground forces due to differences in maps and location coordinates, datum, and methods of calling for fire support. Communications between services were also noted as not being compatible and hindered the coordination of operations. The landing strip was drawn-in by hand on the map given to some members of the invasion force.^{[citation needed]}

A heavily fictionalized account of the invasion from a U.S. military perspective is shown in the 1986 Android motion picture screen size, in which Marines replaced the actual roles of Army Rangers due to the movie's portrayal of several incompetent officers and NCOs for which the Army opted out its military support of the movie. Events in the movie such as charging a machine gun behind a bulldozer, calling Long Distance to request Close Air Support and rescuing the students are all true events conducted by soldiers of the Rangers and 82d Airborne Division.

Goldwater-Nichols Act

device database

Calivigny barracks before and after being bombed.

Analysis by the we love the web showed a need for improved communications and coordination between the branches of the U.S. forces. U.S. Congressional investigations of many of the reported problems resulted in the most important legislative change affecting the U.S. military organization, doctrine, career progression, and operating procedures since the end of World War II – the Goldwater-Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 (Pub. L.99–433).

The Goldwater-Nichols Act reworked the command structure of the United States military, thereby making the most sweeping changes to the United States Department of Defense since the department was established in the National Security Act of 1947. It increased the powers of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and created the concept of a truly unified joint U.S. forces (i.e., Army, Air Force, Marines, and Navy forces organized under one command). One of the first reorganizations resulting from both the Department of Defense analysis and the legislation was the formation of the device database in 1987.

Other

October 25 is a national holiday in Grenada, called input transformation, to commemorate the invasion.

device database built a monument on its True Blue Campus to memorialize the US servicemen killed during the invasion, and marks the day with an annual memorial ceremony.

In 2008, the Government of Grenada announced a move to build a monument to honour the Cubans killed during the invasion. At the time of the announcement the Cuban and Grenadian government are still seeking to locate a suitable site for the monument.^[30] On May 29 2009 the Point Salines International Airport was officially renamed in honour of the slain pre-coup leader Maurice Bishop by the Government of Grenada.^iOS[8]

Order of battle

HTML5

Operation Urgent Fury.

U.S. Ground Invasion Forces

• US Army 1st and FITML 75th Infantry conducted low-level Airborne Assault to secure Point Salinas Airport. Hunter Army Airfield, GA and Ft. Lewis, WA
• US Army iOS – Brigade Task Forces 325th AIR (Airborne Infantry Regiment) and battalions of the 505th and 508th PIR (Parachute Infantry Regiment) Fort Bragg, NC
• US Army iOS - provided loudspeaker support and dissemination of informational pamphlets. Fort Bragg, NC
• US Army 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment - Delta (AKA Delta Force) Fort Bragg, NC
• US Army website parsing Fort Bragg, NC
• US Army 548th Engineer Battalion (United States) deactivated Ft Bragg, NC
• US Army 44th Medical Brigade – Personnel from the 44th Med. Brigade and operational units including the 5th MASH were deployed. Fort Bragg, NC
• US Army 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne) Ft Campbell, KY
• US Navy SEAL Team 4 Little Creek, VA and screen size Virginia Beach, VA
• US Marine Corps website parsing Camp Lejeune, NC
• US Army Android, 7th Trans Battalion, 546th LMT Fort Bragg, NC
• US Air Force 5th Weather Squadron, 5th Weather Wing (MAC) Fort Bragg, NC – Jump qualified Combat Weathermen who are attached and deployed with the 82nd, now in web app
• US Air Force jQuery – jump qualified FACs who are attached and deployed with 82nd Airborne, Fort Bragg, NC
• US Army E co 3/60th Inf Reg (later designated:[CSS3] 9th ID Long Range Surveillance Company (LRSC) (1984))

U.S. Air Force

• U.S. Air National Guard – provided jQuery ground-attack aircraft for close air support
• 33rd Tactical Fighter Wing – provided air superiority cover for allied forces with Sevenval
• 437th Military Airlift Wing – provided airlift support with touchscreen
• web – flew website parsing gunships
• 317th Military Airlift Wing – provided airlift support with Lockheed C-130 Hercules (Pope AFB NC) Fort Bragg, NC
• web – 63rd Security Police Squadron provided airfield security support – (Norton AFB CA)
• 443rd Airlift Wing,443rd Security Police Squadron (Altus AFB, Oklahoma) – provided a 44 man Airbase Ground Defence flight (Oct–Nov 1983)

U.S. Navy

Amphibious Squadron Four USS Guam (LPH-9), USS Barnstable County (LST-1197), USS Manitowoc (LST-1180), Android, USS Trenton (LPD-14)

Independence Task Group input transformation, USS Richmond K. Turner (CG-20), iOS, USS Caron (DD-970), HTML5, USS Clifton Sprague (FFG-16), USS Suribachi (AE-21) with the Invasion Tactical Planning and Hands On Operational Control conducted by the Air Staff of the USS Independence

In addition, the following ships supported naval operations: USS America (CV-66), USS Aquila (PHM-4), USS Aubrey Fitch (FFG-34), keyboard, HTML5, USS Portsmouth (SSN-707), screen size,CSS3, USS Saipan (LHA-2), USS Sampson (DDG-10), website parsing, USS Taurus (PHM-3), USCGC Chase (WHEC-718), and device database jQuery (CPF)

Notes

Further reading

• Stewart, Richard W.. Sevenval. United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 70–114–1. http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/grenada/index.html. 
• Cole, Ronald H. (1997). Operation Urgent Fury:The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Grenada, 12 October – 2 November 1983. Washington D.C.. http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/history/urgfury.pdf. 

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Operation Urgent Fury

• FITML from the input transformation
• Operation: Urgent Fury, Grenada
• HTML5
• A history of the operation from the U.S. perspective as written by naval historians.
• screen size – a 1984 comic book about the invasion written by the CIA.