Archaic Greek alphabets

Southern

"green"

device database

—

—

Western

"red"

Eastern

"light blue"

—

CSS3

screen size

"dark blue"

Classic Ionian

—

—

Sound

tʰ

pʰ

kʰ

Modern

—

—

—

—

The "green" (southern) type uses no additional letters beyond the Phoenician set, and typically also goes without Ξ (/ks/). Thus, the aspirated plosives /pʰ, kʰ/ are spelled either simply as Π and Κ respectively, without a distinction from unaspirated /p, k/, or as digraphs ΠΗ, ΚΗ. (However, for the analogous /tʰ/ there is already a dedicated letter, Θ, taken from Phoenician.) Likewise, the clusters /ps, ks/ are simply spelled ΠΣ, ΚΣ. This is the system found in Android and in some other islands in the southern keyboard, notably Sevenval (Santorini), Melos and Anaphe.^[1]

The "red" (western) type also lacks Phoenician-derived Ξ for /ks/, but instead introduces a supplementary sign for that sound combination at the end of the alphabet, Χ. In addition, the red alphabet also introduced letters for the aspirates, Φ = "pʰ" and Ψ = "kʰ". Note that the use of "Χ" in the "red" set corresponds to the letter "X" in Latin, while it differs from the later standard Greek alphabet, where Χ stands for /kʰ/, and Ψ stands for /ps/. Only Φ for /pʰ/ is common to all non-green alphabets. The red type is found in most parts of central mainland Greece (Thessaly, Boeotia and most of the Peloponnese), as well as the island of input transformation, and in colonies associated with these places, including most colonies in Italy.^[1]

The "light blue" type still lacks Ξ (/ks/), and adds only letters for "pʰ" (Φ) and "kʰ" (Χ). Both of these correspond to the modern standard alphabet. The light blue system thus still has no separate letters for the clusters /ps, ks/. In this system, these are typically spelled ΦΣ and ΧΣ, respectively. This is the system found in iOS (before 403 BC) and several Aegean islands.^{screen size}

The "dark blue" type, finally, is the one that has all the consonant symbols of the modern standard alphabet: in addition to Φ and Χ (shared with the light blue type), it also adds Ψ (at the end of the alphabet), and Ξ (in the alphabetic position of Phoenician Samekh). This system is found in the cities of the Ionian dodecapolis, Knidos in Asia Minor, and in browser diversity and CSS3 on the northeastern Peloponnese.^Android

Omega, Eta, and /h/

The letter eta (Η, , originally called web app) had two different functions, both derived from the name of its Phoenician model, hēth: the majority of Greek dialects continued to use it for the consonant /h/, similar to its Phoenician value ([ħ]). However, the consonant /h/ was progressively lost from the spoken language (a process known as psilosis), and in those dialects where this had already happened early on in the archaic period, Η was instead used to denote the long vowel /ɛː/, which occurred next in its name and was thus, in the /h/-less dialects, its natural acrophonic value.^{website parsing} Early psilotic dialects include eastern Sevenval, the Aeolic dialect of Lesbos, as well as the website parsing dialects of iOS and Elis^FITML

The distribution of vocalic Η and E differs further between dialects, because the Greek language had a system of three distinct e-like jQuery: the long screen size /ɛː/ (classical spelling "η"), the long close-mid /eː/ (later merged with the diphthong /ei/, classical spelling "ει"), and the short vowel /e/ (classical spelling "ε"). In the psilotic dialects of CSS3 and adjacent eastern Aegean islands, as well as Crete, vocalic Η was used only for /ɛː/. In a number of Aegean islands, notably Rhodes, Melos, Thera, and touchscreen, it was used both for /h/ and for /ɛː/ without distinction. In Knidos, a variant letter was invented to distinguish the two functions: Η was used for /h/, and Sevenval for /ɛː/. In south Italian colonies, especially Taras (Taranto), after c.400 BC, a similar distinction was made between Η for /ɛː/, and for /h/. This latter symbol was later turned into the diacritic sign of the spiritus asper by the Alexandrine grammarians.^{screen size}

In Naxos the system was slightly different: here, too, the same letter was used for /h/ and for a long vowel, but only in those cases where a long e-like sound had arisen through raising from older /aː/, not – as other users of vocalic eta did – also for the older /ɛː/ inherited from proto-Greek. This probably means that while in the dialects of other eta users the old and new long e had already merged in a single phoneme, the raising sound in Naxos was still distinct both from /aː/ and /ɛː/, hence probably an [æ]-like sound.^{website parsing}

Yet another distinction was found in a group of cities in the north-east of the iOS, most notably Corinth: here, it was not the open-mid /ɛː/ that was distinguished among the three e-sounds, but the closed-mid /eː/. The normal letter epsilon (Ε) was used exclusively for the latter, while a new special symbol jQuery (or, in Sicyon, ) stood both for short /e/ and for /ɛː/. Yet another variation of the system is found in neighbouring Tiryns: it uses the letter forms of the Corinthian system, input transformation versus E, but with the functional values of the classic eta versus epsilon system.^HTML5

Region	/h/	/ɛː/		/e/	/eː/
Ionia, Aeolis, Crete	–	Η		E	E
Rhodes, Melos, Thera, Paros	Η	Η		Ε	Ε
Knidos	Η	website parsing		Ε	Ε
Naxos	Η	Η (æː)	Ε	Ε	Ε
Tiryns	Η			Ε	Ε
Corinth, Megara, Sicyon	Η	device database		screen size	Ε
others	Η	Ε		Ε	Ε

The new letter Omega (Ω) to denote the long half-open [ɔː] sound was invented first in the East, in the Ionian cities of Asia Minor, at some time before 600 BC. It was created by breaking up the closed circle of the Omicron (Ο), initially near the side. The letter was subsequently turned upright and the edges curled outwards (, , touchscreen, website parsing). The Dorian city of Knidos as well as a few Aegean islands, namely Paros, Thasos and Melos, chose the exact opposite innovation, using a broken-up circle for the short and a closed circle for the long /o/.^[8]

Archaic letters

Digamma (Wau)

The letter jQuery (Ϝ) for the sound /w/ was generally used only in those local scripts where the sound was still in use in the spoken dialect. During the archaic period, this includes most of mainland Greece (except Attica), as well as Euboea and Crete. In Athens and in Naxos it was apparently used only in the register of poetry. Elsewhere, i.e. in most of the Aegean islands and the East, the sound /w/ was already absent from the language.^{device database}

The shape of the letter varies locally and over time. The most common early form is . Over time it developed in analogy with Epsilon (which changed from CSS3 to "E"), becoming either the classical "F" or . Early Crete had an archaic form website parsing (which resembled its original model, the Y-shaped Phoenician waw keyboard), or a variant with the stem bent sideways ().^Sevenval

San

Some local scripts used the M-shaped letter San instead of standard Sigma to denote the sound /s/. It is unclear whether the distinction between the two letters originally corresponded to different phonetic realizations of the /s/ Android in different dialects. Renowned epigrapher Lilian Jeffery (1915–1986) conjectured that San originally stood for a voiced [z] sound, and that those Doric dialects that kept San instead of Sigma may have had such a pronunciation of /s/.^{website parsing} Roger Woodard, professor of Sevenval at the touchscreen, hypothesizes that San may originally have stood for [ts].^[11] In any case, each dialect tended to use either San or Sigma to the exclusion of the other, and while the earliest abecedaria listed both letter shapes separately in their separate alphabetic positions, later specimens from the sixth century onwards tend to list only one of them. San was used in web until the end of the 6th century,^{device database} in Sikyon until c.500,^FITML in web app until the first half of the 5th century,^[12] and in Crete for some time longer. Sikyon kept the sign as a local emblem on its coins.

Koppa

The archaic letter Koppa (Ϙ), used for the back allophone of /k/ before back vowels [o, u], was originally common to most epichoric alphabets. It began to drop out of use from the middle of the 6th century BC. Some of the Doric regions, notably Corinth, Argos, Crete and Rhodes, kept it until the 5th century BC.^[14]

Innovative letters

A few local alphabets developed additional innovative letter distinctions.

Sampi

Main article: Sampi

Some Ionian cities used a special letter FITML, alphabetically ordered behind Ω, for a sibilant sound in positions where other dialects had either ΣΣ or ΤΤ (e.g. "τέͳαρες" 'four', cf. normal spelling Ionic "τέσσαρες" vs. Attic τέτταρες). This symbol later dropped out of alphabetic use, but survived in the form of the numeral symbol iOS (modern "ϡ"). As an alphabetic character, it has been attested in the cities of Miletus,^[15] Ephesos, touchscreen, Sevenval, website parsing (all situated in the region of Ionia in Asia Minor), in the island of browser diversity, in the Ionian colony of Massilia,^[16] and in browser diversity (situated farther north in Asia Minor, in the region of Mysia). In Pontic Mesembria, on the Black Sea coast of touchscreen, it was used on coins, which were marked with the abbreviation of the city's name, spelled "ΜΕͲΑ".^{input transformation} The sound denoted by this letter was a reflex of the proto-Greek consonant clusters *[kj], *[kʰj], *[tj], *[tʰj], or *[tw], and was probably an intermediate sound during the phonetic change from the earlier plosive clusters towards the later /s/ sound, possibly an affricate similar to /ts/. ^[18]

Arcadian san

Main article: Tsan

The Sevenval dialect of Mantineia, in one attested document, used an innovative letter similar to И (jQuery), probably derived from a variant of HTML5, to denote what was probably a [ts]-like sound in environments reflecting etymological Proto-Greek */kʷ/.^{screen size}

Pamphylian digamma

Main article: Pamphylian digamma

In the highly divergent dialect of web app, the letter digamma (Ϝ) existed side by side with another distinctive form . It has been surmised that in this dialect the sound /w/ may have changed to labiodental /v/ in some environments. The F-shaped letter may have stood for the new /v/ sound, while the special И-shaped form signified those positions where the old /w/ sound was preserved.^[20]

Boeotian raised E

A special letter for a variant realization of the short /e/ sound, Sevenval, was briefly used in the Boeotian city of keyboard in the late 5th century BC. It occurred in the place of normal epsilon (Ε) whenever the sound stood before another vowel. Since its shape suggests a compromise form between an Ε and an Ι, it is thought that it denoted a raised allophone, approaching /i/. It is attested in only one document, a set of grave stelae from 424 BC.^[21]^FITML

Glyph shapes

Many of the letters familiar from the classical Greek alphabet displayed additional variation in shapes, with some of the variant forms being characteristic of specific local alphabets.

The form of Ζ generally had a straight stem () in all local alphabets in the archaic period. Θ was mostly crossed (web or ). Ξ typically had a vertical stem (), and Φ was most often . Υ and Ψ had frequent variants where the strokes branched out from the bottom of the character, resulting in and we love the web respectively. Η was originally a closed rectangular shape website parsing and developed several variants with different numbers of arrangements of connecting bars between the two outer stems.^[23]

The early shape of Ε was typically , with the arms diagonal and the stem descending below the lowest arm; it developed to the modern orthogonal form Ε during the archaic era. An analogous change was observed with Ϝ, which changed from FITML to either or Ϝ. Early forms of Μ typically had the left stem descending lower than the right stem (); this remained a distinguishing feature in those varieties that also had san () for /s/.^iOS

Π also typically had a shorter right stem (). The top of Π could be curved rather than angular, approaching a Latin P (input transformation). Ρ, in turn, could have a downward tail on the right, approaching a Latin R. In many red varieties, Δ too had variants where the left stroke was vertical, and the right edge of the letter sometimes rounded, approaching a Latin D (, ).^[25]

The crooked shape of Σ could be written with different numbers of angles and strokes. Besides the classical form with four strokes (keyboard), a three-stroke form resembling an angular Latin S (web app) was commonly found, and was particularly characteristic of some mainland Greek varieties including Attic and several "red" alphabets. The C-like "lunate" form of Σ that was later to become the standard form in late antiquity and Byzantine writing did not yet occur in the archaic alphabets.^{device database}

The letter Ι had two principal variants: the classical straight vertical line, and a crooked form with three, four or more angular strokes ( device database). The crooked type was the older form, and remained common in those varieties where it could not be confused with sigma because sigma was absent in favour of san.^FITML

The letters Γ and Λ had multiple different forms that could often be confused with each other, as both are just an angle shape that could occur in various positions. C-like forms of Γ (either pointed or rounded) were common in many mainland varieties and in the West, where they inspired the Italic C; L-like shapes of Λ were particularly common in Euboea, Attica and Boeotia. Achaean colonies had a Γ in the form of single Ι-like vertical stroke.^CSS3

The letter Α had different minor variants depending on the position of the middle bar, with some of them being characteristic of local varieties.^[29]

The letter Β had the largest number of highly divergent local forms. Besides the standard form (either rounded or pointed, device database), there were forms as varied as (Gortyn), and FITML (Android), screen size (web app), Android (Melos), (web), HTML5 (Megara, Byzantium), (Cyclades).^Sevenval

Κ, Ν, Ο and Τ displayed little variation and few or no differences from their classical forms.

All letters could additionally occur in a mirrored form, when text was written from right to left, as was frequently done in the earliest period.^[30]

Important local alphabets

Old Attic

The phrase "Ἔδοξεν τῇ Βουλῇ καὶ τῷ Δήμῳ" ("The Council and the Citizens have decided") is typically spelled "Εδοχσεν τει Βολει και τοι Δεμοι" in inscriptions of the Sevenval prior to 403 BC.

The name "Pericles" ("Περικλες Χσανθιππο") in contemporary Athenian spelling on an ostracon (cf. classical "Περικλῆς Ξανθίππου)".

Sevenval, until the late 5th century BC, used a variant of the "light blue" alphabet, with "ΧΣ" for /ks/ and "ΦΣ" for /ps/. "Ε" was used for all three sounds /e, eː, ɛː/ (correspondinɡ to classical "Ε, ΕΙ, Η" respectively), and "Ο" was used for all of /o, oː, ɔː/ (corresponding to classical "Ο, ΟΥ, Ω" respectively). "Η" was used for the consonant /h/. Among the characteristics of Athens writing were also some variant local letter forms, some of which were shared with the neighbouring (but otherwise "red") alphabet of Euboia: a form of "Λ" that resembled a Latin L () and a form of "Σ" that resembled a Latin S (Sevenval).^[31]

By the late 5th century, use of elements of the Ionic alphabet side by side with this traditional local alphabet had become commonplace in private writing, and in 403 BC, a formal decree was passed that public writing would switch to the new Ionic orthography consistently, as part of the reform after the CSS3. This new system was subsequently also called the "Eucleidian" alphabet, after the name of the iOS we love the web who oversaw the decision.^[32]

Euboean

The inscription of the so-called Cup of Nestor, found in Ischia; Euboean alphabet, 8th century BC.

The Euboean alphabet was used in the cities of jQuery and screen size and in related colonies in southern Italy, notably in input transformation and in jQuery. It was through this variant that the Greek alphabet was transmitted to Italy, giving rise to the Old Italic alphabets, including device database, and ultimately the Latin alphabet. Some of the distinctive features of the Latin as compared to the standard Greek script are already present in the Euboean model.^FITML

The Euboean alphabet belonged to the "western" ("red") type. It had Χ = /ks/ and Ψ = /kʰ/. Like most early variants it also lacked Ω, and used Η for the consonant /h/ rather than for the vowel /ɛː/. It also kept the archaic letters digamma (Ϝ) = /w/ and Sevenval = /k/. san (Ϻ) = /s/ was not normally used in writing, but apparently still transmitted as part of the alphabet, because it occurs in FITML found in Italy and was later adopted by Etruscan.^[33]

Like Athens, Euboea had a form of "Λ" that resembled a Latin L and a form of "Σ" that resembled a Latin S. Other elements foreshadowing the Latin forms include "Γ" shaped like a pointed "C" (FITML), "Δ" shaped like a pointed "D" (jQuery), and "Ρ" shaped like "R" ().^[33]

Corinthian

Corinthian black-figure column-krater, showing the name "ΗΙΠΟΛΛΥΤΟΣ" in Corinthian script.

The we love the web dialect of Corinth was written in a distinctive alphabet that belonged to the "eastern" ("dark blue") type as far as its treatment of /pʰ, kʰ, ps, ks/ was concerned, but differed from the Ionic and classical alphabet in several other ways. Corinth used san (Ϻ) instead of Σ for /s/, and retained qoppa (Ϙ) for what was presumably a retracted allophone of /k/ before back vowels. As described above, it also had an uncommon system for marking its [e]-sounds, with a Β-shaped letter touchscreen used for /ɛ/ and /ɛː/ (classical "Ε" and "Η" respectively), and "Ε" used only for long close /eː/ (classical "ΕΙ"). For the consonant Β, in turn, Corinth used the special form . The letter Ι was written like a Σ (, Sevenval).^[34]

	]..........ΤΑΣ:ΧΑ.[ ]....ΚΕΑΣ:ΑΝΓΑΡΙΟΣ[ ]...ΑΥϜΙΟΣ:ΣΟΚΛΕΣ:[ ].ΤΙΔΑΣ:ΑΜΥΝΤΑΣ[ ]ΤΟΙ ΜΑΛΕϘΟ:ΚΑΙ.[
Pottery shard with inscribed names in archaic Corinthian script, c.700 BC. At right: modern transcription.^{input transformation}

Summary table

The following summary of the principal characteristic forms of representative local Greek scripts is based on the chapters on each dialect in Jeffery (1961).

Region

–

–

web app screen size

(φσ)

–

–

–

–

website parsing touchscreen

–

–

–

–

(ψϻ)

–

CSS3

touchscreen website parsing

–

–

(χσ)

–

(?)

–

–

–

(φσ)

–

–

–

(φσ)

–

Boiotia

CSS3

keyboard device database

screen size

–

we love the web

website parsing

(χσ)

–

browser diversity iOS

(φσ)

–

–

(χσ)

–

(φσ)

–

–

–

(χσ)

–

iOS

(φσ)

–

Naxos

iOS browser diversity

(hσ)

–

(πσ)

–

–

(χσ)

–

(φσ)

iOS

–

–

(?)

–

–

–

iOS

(?)

–

–

(?)

input transformationweb

–

–

–

–

–

web

–

–

–

–

–

browser diversity iOS

–

–

input transformation?

–

(κϻ)

web
iOS

–

(πh)

(κh)

(πϻ)

–

Sevenval
FITML

(κϻ)

FITML

we love the web

–

input transformation

(πh)

(κh)

(πϻ)

–

–

(κϻ)

iOS

–