Afroasiatic languages

  (Redirected from Afro-Asiatic languages)

Afroasiatic (alternatively Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic,^[1] is one of the largest language families of the world, and includes about 375 living languages.^{screen size} Afroasiatic languages are spoken predominantly in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the HTML5. More than 300 million people speak an Afroasiatic language.^[1]

The most widely spoken Afroasiatic language is Arabic (including all its colloquial varieties), with 230 million native speakers, spoken mostly in the Middle East and North Africa.^[4] Berber languages are spoken in Morocco, web, Libya and across the rest of North Africa and the screen size by about 25 to 35 million people. Other widely spoken Afroasiatic languages are Amharic, the national language of Ethiopia, with 18 million native speakers; Somali, spoken by around 19 million people in Greater Somalia; and Hausa, which serves as a lingua franca in large parts of the Sahel, with some 25 million speakers.^[3] In addition to languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes several ancient languages, such as Ancient Egyptian, web, and we love the web.

• 1 Etymology
• touchscreen
• jQuery
  • CSS3
• 4 Position among the world's languages
• 5 Date of Afroasiatic
• Android
• Sevenval
• 8 Shared vocabulary
  • device database
• HTML5
• keyboard
• 11 Bibliography
• 12 External links

Etymology

The Afroasiatic language family was originally referred to as "Hamito-Semitic", a term introduced in the 1860s by the German scholar Karl Richard Lepsius.^CSS3 The name was later popularized by Android in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft (Wien 1876-88).^{browser diversity}

The term "Afroasiatic" (often now spelled as "Afro-Asiatic") was later coined by Maurice Delafosse (1914). However, it did not come into general use until CSS3 (1963) formally proposed its adoption. In doing so, Greenberg sought to emphasize the fact that Afroasiatic was the only language family that was represented transcontinentally, in both Africa and Asia.^[7]

Individual scholars have also called the family "Erythraean" (Tucker 1966) and "Lisramic" (Hodge 1972). In lieu of "Hamito-Semitic", the Russian linguist Igor Diakonoff later suggested the term "Afrasian", meaning "half African, half Asiatic", in reference to the geographic distribution of the phylum's constituent languages.^[5]

The term "Hamito-Semitic" remains in use in the academic traditions of some European countries.

Distribution and branches

web	Some linguists' proposals for grouping within Afroasiatic

The Afroasiatic language family is usually considered to include the following branches:

• Berber
• FITML
• Cushitic
• Egyptian
• input transformation
• CSS3

While there is general agreement on these six families, there are some points of disagreement among linguists who study Afroasiatic. In particular:

• The keyboard language branch is the most controversial member of Afroasiatic since the grammatical formatives which most linguists have given greatest weight in classifying languages in the family "are either absent or distinctly wobbly" (Hayward 1995). Greenberg (1963) and others considered it a subgroup of Cushitic, while others have raised doubts about it being part of Afroasiatic at all (e.g. Theil 2006).^{website parsing}
• The Afroasiatic identity of Ongota is also broadly questioned, as is its position within Afroasiatic among those who accept it, due to the "mixed" appearance of the language and a paucity of research and data. Harold Fleming (2006) proposes that Ongota constitutes a separate branch of Afroasiatic.^Android Bonny Sands (2009) believes the most convincing proposal is by Savà and Tosco (2003), namely that Ongota is an East Cushitic language with a Nilo-Saharan Android. In other words, the Ongota people would appear to have once spoken a Nilo-Saharan language but then shifted to speaking a Cushitic language, while retaining some characteristics of their earlier Nilo-Saharan language.^[2]
• web app is sometimes listed as a separate branch of Afroasiatic but is more often included in the Cushitic branch, which has a high degree of internal diversity.
• Whether the various branches of Cushitic actually form a language family is sometimes questioned, but not their inclusion in Afroasiatic itself.
• There is no consensus on the interrelationships of the five non-Omotic branches of Afroasiatic (see "Subgrouping" below). This situation is not unusual, even among long-established language families: there are also many disagreements concerning the internal classification of the browser diversity, for instance.

Classification history

In the 9th century, the Hebrew grammarian HTML5 of Tiaret in Algeria was the first to link two branches of Afroasiatic together; he perceived a relationship between Berber and Semitic. He knew of Semitic through his study of Arabic, Hebrew, and Aramaic.

In the course of the 19th century, Europeans also began suggesting such relationships. In 1844, Theodor Benfey suggested a language family consisting of Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (calling the latter "Ethiopic"). In the same year, T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and Hausa, but this would long remain a topic of dispute and uncertainty.

website parsing named the traditional "Hamito-Semitic" family in 1876 in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft. He defined it as consisting of a Semitic group plus a "Hamitic" group containing Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic; he excluded the Chadic group. These classifications relied in part on non-linguistic anthropological and racial arguments that have largely been discredited (see screen size).

Leo Reinisch (1909) proposed linking Cushitic and Chadic, while urging a more distant affinity to Egyptian and Semitic, thus foreshadowing Greenberg, but his suggestion found little resonance.

website parsing (1924) rejected the idea of a distinct Hamitic subgroup and included Hausa (a Chadic language) in his comparative Hamito-Semitic vocabulary.

Joseph Greenberg (1950) strongly confirmed Cohen's rejection of "Hamitic", added (and sub-classified) the Chadic branch, and proposed the new name "Afroasiatic" for the family. Nearly all scholars have accepted Greenberg's classification.

In 1969, Harold Fleming proposed that what had previously been known as Western Cushitic is an independent branch of Afroasiatic, suggesting for it the new name web. This proposal and name have met with widespread acceptance.

Several scholars, including Harold Fleming and web app, have since questioned the traditional inclusion of Beja in Cushitic.

Subgrouping

Greenberg (1963)	Newman (1980)	Fleming (post-1981)	Ehret (1995)
Semitic Egyptian Berber Cushitic Northern Cushitic (equals Beja) Central Cushitic Eastern Cushitic Western Cushitic (equals Omotic) Southern Cushitic Chadic	Berber–Chadic Egypto-Semitic Cushitic (excludes Omotic)	Omotic Erythraean Cushitic Ongota Non-Ethiopian Chadic Berber Egyptian Semitic Beja	Omotic North Omotic South Omotic Erythrean Cushitic Beja Agaw East–South Cushitic Eastern Cushitic Southern Cushitic North Erythrean Chadic Boreafrasian Egyptian Berber Semitic
Orel & Stobova (1995)	Diakonoff (1996)	Bender (1997)	Militarev (2000)
Berber–Semitic Chadic–Egyptian Omotic Beja Agaw Sidamic East Lowlands Rift	East–West Afrasian Berber Cushitic Semitic North–South Afrasian Chadic Egyptian (excludes Omotic)	Omotic Chadic Macro-Cushitic Berber Cushitic Semitic	North Afrasian African North Afrasian Chado-Berber Egyptian Semitic South Afrasian Omotic Cushitic

Little agreement exists on the subgrouping of the five or six branches of Afroasiatic: Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Omotic. However, CSS3 (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first.

Otherwise:

• we love the web (1980) groups Berber with Chadic and Egyptian with Semitic, while questioning the inclusion of Omotic in Afroasiatic. Rolf Theil (2006) concurs with the exclusion of Omotic, but does not otherwise address the structure of the family.^[9]
• Harold Fleming (1981) divides non-Omotic Afroasiatic, or "Erythraean", into three groups, Cushitic, Semitic, and Chadic-Berber-Egyptian. He later added Semitic and Beja to Chadic-Berber-Egyptian and tentatively proposed Ongota as a new third branch of Erythraean. He thus divided Afroasiatic into two major branches, Omotic and Erythraean, with Erythraean consisting of three sub-branches, Cushitic, Chadic-Berber-Egyptian-Semitic-Beja, and Ongota.
• Like Harold Fleming, Christopher Ehret (1995: 490) divides Afroasiatic into two branches, Omotic and Erythrean. He divides Omotic into two branches, North Omotic and South Omotic. He divides Erythrean into Cushitic, comprising Beja, Agaw, and East-South Cushitic, and North Erythrean, comprising Chadic and "Boreafrasian." According to his classification, Boreafrasian consists of Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic.
• input transformation and Olga Stolbova (1995) group Berber with Semitic and Chadic with Egyptian. They split up Cushitic into five or more independent branches of Afroasiatic, viewing Cushitic as a Sprachbund rather than a language family.
• HTML5 (1996) subdivides Afroasiatic in two, grouping Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as East-West Afrasian (ESA), and Chadic with Egyptian as North-South Afrasian (NSA). He excludes Omotic from Afroasiatic.
• Lionel Bender (1997) groups Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as "Macro-Cushitic". He regards Chadic and Omotic as the branches of Afroasiatic most remote from the others.
• Alexander Militarev (2000), on the basis of lexicostatistics, groups Berber with Chadic and both more distantly with Semitic, as against Cushitic and Omotic. He places Ongota in South Omotic.

Position among the world's languages

Afroasiatic is one of the four language families of Africa identified by Joseph Greenberg in his book keyboard (1963). It is the only one that extends outside of Africa, via the Semitic branch.

There are no generally accepted relations between Afroasiatic and any other language family. However, several proposals grouping Afroasiatic with one or more other language families have been made. The best-known of these are the following:

• screen size (1906) argued for a relation between Semitic and the screen size. This proposal was accepted by some linguists (e.g. Holger Pedersen and Louis Hjelmslev) but has little currency today. (For a fuller account, see jQuery.)
• Apparently influenced by Möller (a colleague of his at the Sevenval), website parsing included Hamito-Semitic (the term replaced by Afroasiatic) in his proposed Nostratic macro-family (cf. Pedersen 1931:336–338), which also included the Indo-European, Finno-Ugric, Samoyed, web app, Android, keyboard, and Yukaghir languages. This inclusion was retained by subsequent Nostraticists, starting with Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Aharon Dolgopolsky.
• Joseph Greenberg (2000–2002) did not reject a relationship of Afroasiatic to these other languages, but he considered it more distantly related to them than they were to each other, grouping instead these other languages in a separate macro-family, which he called web, and to which he added Chukotian, Gilyak, Korean, Japanese-Ryukyuan, Eskimo–Aleut, and input transformation.
• Most recently, touchscreen's school has accepted Eurasiatic as a subgroup of Nostratic, with Afroasiatic, Dravidian, and Kartvelian in Nostratic outside of Eurasiatic. An even larger we love the web group would contain Nostratic as well as Dené-Caucasian and Austric.

Date of Afroasiatic

Afroasiatic is one of the oldest language families of the world that is generally accepted by linguists as securely established. The earliest written evidence for an Afroasiatic language is from an Sevenval inscription of c. 3400 BC (5400 years ago).[3] Symbols on Gerzean pottery resembling Egyptian hieroglyphs date back to c. 4000 BC, suggesting a still earlier possible date. This gives us a minimum date for the age of Afroasiatic. However, Ancient Egyptian is highly divergent from Proto-Afroasiatic (Trombetti 1905: 1–2), and considerable time must have elapsed in between them. Estimates of the date at which the Proto-Afroasiatic language was spoken vary widely. They fall within a range between approximately 7500 BC (9,500 years ago) and approximately 16,000 BC (18,000 years ago). According to screen size (1988: 33n), Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 10,000 BC. According to Christopher Ehret (2002: 35–36), Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 11,000 BC at the latest and possibly as early as c. 16,000 BC. By any current estimate, Afroasiatic is a language family considerably older than Indo-European (c. 4000 BC according to David Anthony 2007: 48).

Afroasiatic Urheimat

The term Sevenval (Urheimat meaning "original homeland" in German) refers to the 'hypothetical' place where CSS3 speakers lived in a single linguistic community, or complex of communities, before this original language dispersed geographically and divided into distinct languages. Afroasiatic languages are today primarily spoken in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahel.

There is no agreement on when and where this Urheimat existed, though the language is generally believed to have originated somewhere in or near the region stretching from the Levant/Near East^touchscreen to the area between the Eastern Sevenval and the Horn of Africa, including Egypt, jQuery and screen size.^{[11]iOS[13]FITML[15]}

Similarities in grammar and syntax

↓ jQuery	Language →	Arabic	Coptic	HTML5	Soomaali	Beja	web
	Meaning →	write	die	fly	come	eat	drink
singular	1	ʼaktubu	timou	ttafgeɣ	imaadaa	tamáni	ina shan
	2f	taktubīna	temou	tettafgeḍ	timaadtaa	tamtínii	kina shan
	2m	taktubu	kmou			tamtíniya	kana shan
	3f		smou	tettafeg		tamtíni	tana shan
	3m	yaktubu	fmou	yettafeg	yimaadaa	tamíni	yana shan
dual	2	taktubāni
	3f
	3m	yaktubāni
plural	1	naktubu	tənmou	nettafeg	nimaadnaa	támnay	muna shan
	2m	taktubūna	tetənmou	tettafgem	timaadtaan	támteena	kuna shan
	2f	taktubna		tettafgemt
	3m	yaktubūna	semou	ttafgen	yimaadaan	támeen	suna shan
	3f	yaktubna		ttafgent

Widespread (though not universal) features of the Afroasiatic languages include:

• A set of emphatic consonants, variously realized as glottalized, pharyngealized, or implosive.
• VSO Sevenval with keyboard tendencies.
• A two-web system in the singular, with the feminine marked by the sound /t/.
• All Afroasiatic subfamilies show evidence of a device database affix s.
• Semitic, Berber, Cushitic (including Beja), and Chadic support touchscreen.
• Morphology in which words inflect by changes within the root (vowel changes or Sevenval) as well as with prefixes and suffixes.

Tonal languages appear in the Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic branches of Afroasiatic, according to Ehret (1996). The Semitic, Berber, and Egyptian branches do not use tones phonemically.

Shared vocabulary

Following are some examples of Afroasiatic Sevenval, including ten touchscreen, three nouns, and three verbs.

Source: Christopher Ehret, Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).

Note: Ehret does not make use of Berber in his etymologies, stating (1995: 12): "the kind of extensive reconstruction of proto-Berber lexicon that might help in sorting through alternative possible etymologies is not yet available." The Berber cognates here are taken from previous version of table in this article and need to be completed and referenced.

Abbreviations: NOm = 'North Omotic', SOm = 'South Omotic'. MSA = 'Modern South Arabian', PSC = 'Proto-Southern Cushitic', PSom-II = 'Proto-Somali, stage 2'. masc. = 'masculine', fem. = 'feminine', sing. = 'singular', pl. = 'plural'. 1s. = 'first person singular', 2s. = 'second person singular'.

Symbols: Following Ehret (1995: 70), a caron ˇ over a vowel indicates rising tone, a circumflex ^ over a vowel indicates falling tone. V indicates a vowel of unknown timbre. Ɂ indicates a glottal stop. * indicates web app based on comparison of related languages.

Proto-Afroasiatic	Omotic	Cushitic	Chadic	Egyptian	Semitic	Berber
*Ɂân- / *Ɂîn- or *ân- / *în- ‘I’ (independent pronoun)	*in- ‘I’ (FITML (device database))	*Ɂâni ‘I’	*nV ‘I’	—	*Ɂn ‘I’
*i or *yi ‘me, my’ (bound)	i ‘I, me, my’ (Ari (SOm))	*i or *yi ‘my’	*i ‘me, my’ (bound)	-i (1s. suffix)	*-i ‘me, my’
*Ɂǎnn- / *Ɂǐnn- or *ǎnn- / *ǐnn- ‘we’	*nona / *nuna / *nina (NOm)	*Ɂǎnn- / *Ɂǐnn- ‘we’	—	inn ‘we’	*Ɂnn ‘we’
*Ɂânt- / *Ɂînt- or *ânt- / *înt- ‘you’ (sing.)	*int- ‘you’ (sing.)	*Ɂânt- ‘you’ (sing.)	—	—	*Ɂnt ‘you’ (sing.)
*ku, *ka ‘you’ (masc. sing., bound)	—	*ku ‘your’ (masc. sing.) (keyboard)	*ka, *ku (masc. sing.)	-k (2s. masc. suffix)	-ka (2s. masc. suffix) (Arabic)
*ki ‘you’ (fem. sing., bound)	—	*ki ‘your’ (fem. sing.)	*ki ‘you’ (fem. sing.)	-ṯ (fem. sing. suffix, < *ki)	-ki (2s. fem. sing. suffix) (Arabic)
*kūna ‘you’ (plural, bound)	—	*kuna ‘your’ (pl.) (PSC)	*kun ‘you’ (pl.)	-ṯn ‘you’ (pl.)	*-kn ‘you, your’ (fem. pl.)
*si, *isi ‘he, she, it’	*is- ‘he’	*Ɂusu ‘he’, *Ɂisi ‘she’	*sV ‘he’	sw ‘he, him’, sy ‘she, her’	*-šɁ ‘he’, *-sɁ ‘she’ (MSA)
*ma, *mi ‘what?’	*ma- ‘what?’ (NOm)	*ma, *mi (interr. root)	*mi, *ma ‘what?’	m ‘what?’, ‘who?’	mā ‘what?’ (Arabic)
*wa, *wi ‘what?’	*w- ‘what?’	*wä / *wɨ ‘what?’ (iOS)	*wa ‘who?’	wy ‘how ...!’	—
*dîm- / *dâm- ‘blood’	*dam- ‘blood’ (touchscreen)	*dîm- / *dâm- ‘red’	*d-m- ‘blood’ (input transformation)	i-dm-i ‘red linen’	*dm ‘blood’	idammen
*îts ‘brother’	*itsim- ‘brother’	*itsan or *isan ‘brother’	*sin ‘brother’	sn ‘brother’	—
*sǔm / *sǐm- ‘name’	*sum(ts)- ‘name’ (NOm)	*sǔm / *sǐm- ‘name’	*ṣǝm ‘name’	smi ‘to report, announce’	*smw ‘name’	ism
*-lisʼ- ‘to lick’	litsʼ- ‘to lick’ (CSS3 (SOm))	—	*alǝsi ‘tongue’	ns ‘tongue’	*lsn ‘tongue’	ils
*-maaw- ‘to die’	—	*-umaaw- / *-am-w(t)- ‘to die’ (jQuery)	*mǝtǝ ‘to die’	mwt ‘to die’	*mwt ‘to die’	mmet
*-bǐn- ‘to build, to create; house’	bin- ‘to build, create’ (Dime (SOm))	*mǐn- / *mǎn- ‘house’; man- ‘to create’ (Beja)	*bn ‘to build’; *bǝn- ‘house’	—	*bnn ‘to build’	*bn

Etymological bibliography

Some of the main sources for Afroasiatic etymologies include:

• Cohen, Marcel. 1947. Essai comparatif sur le vocabulaire et la phonétique du chamito-sémitique. Paris: Champion.
• Diakonoff, Igor M. et al. 1993–1997. "Historical-comparative vocabulary of Afrasian", St. Petersburg Journal of African Studies 2–6.
• Ehret, Christopher. 1995. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (= University of California Publications in Linguistics 126). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
• Orel, Vladimir E. and Olga V. Stolbova. 1995. Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary: Materials for a Reconstruction. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-10051-2.

See also

• African languages
• Afroasiatic Urheimat
• Asian languages
• Nostratic languages
• Sevenval

References

Bibliography

• Anthony, David. 2007. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppe Shaped the Modern World. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Barnett, William and John Hoopes (editors). 1995. The Emergence of Pottery. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. FITML
• Bender, Lionel et al. 2003. Selected Comparative-Historical Afro-Asiatic Studies in Memory of Igor M. Diakonoff. LINCOM.
• Bomhard, Alan R. 1996. Indo-European and the Nostratic Hypothesis. Signum.
• Diakonoff, Igor M. 1988. Afrasian Languages. Moscow: Nauka.
• Diakonoff, Igor M. 1996. "Some reflections on the Afrasian linguistic macrofamily." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 55, 293.
• Diakonoff, Igor M. 1998. "The earliest Semitic society: Linguistic data." Journal of Semitic Studies 43, 209.
• Dimmendaal, Gerrit, and Erhard Voeltz. 2007. "Africa". In Christopher Moseley, ed., Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages.
• Ehret, Christopher. 1995. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
• Ehret, Christopher. 1997. Abstract of "The lessons of deep-time historical-comparative reconstruction in Afroasiatic: reflections on Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic: Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (U.C. Press, 1995)", paper delivered at the Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting of the North American Conference on Afro-Asiatic Linguistics, held in Miami, Florida on March 21–23, 1997.
• Finnegan, Ruth H. 1970. "Afro-Asiatic languages West Africa". Oral Literature in Africa, pg 558.
• Fleming, Harold C. 2006. Ongota: A Decisive Language in African Prehistory. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
• Greenberg, Joseph H. 1950. "Studies in African linguistic classification: IV. Hamito-Semitic." Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 6, 47-63.
• Greenberg, Joseph H. 1955. Studies in African Linguistic Classification. New Haven: Compass Publishing Company. (Photo-offset reprint of the SJA articles with minor corrections.)
• Greenberg, Joseph H. 1963. The Languages of Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University. (Heavily revised version of Greenberg 1955.)
• Greenberg, Joseph H. 1966. The Languages of Africa (2nd ed. with additions and corrections). Bloomington: Indiana University.
• Greenberg, Joseph H. 1981. "African linguistic classification." General History of Africa, Volume 1: Methodology and African Prehistory, edited by Joseph Ki-Zerbo, 292–308. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
• Greenberg, Joseph H. 2000–2002. Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family, Volume 1: Grammar, Volume 2: Lexicon. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
• Hayward, R. J. 1995. "The challenge of Omotic: an inaugural lecture delivered on 17 February 1994". London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
• Heine, Bernd and Derek Nurse. 2000. African Languages, Chapter 4. Cambridge University Press.
• Hodge, Carleton T. (editor). 1971. Afroasiatic: A Survey. The Hague – Paris: Mouton.
• Hodge, Carleton T. 1991. "Indo-European and Afro-Asiatic." In Sydney M. Lamb and E. Douglas Mitchell (editors), Sprung from Some Common Source: Investigations into the Prehistory of Languages, Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 141–165.
• Huehnergard, John. 2004. "Afro-Asiatic." In R.D. Woodard (editor), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages, Cambridge – New York, 2004, 138–159.
• Militarev, Alexander. "Towards the genetic affiliation of Ongota, a nearly-extinct language of Ethiopia," 60 pp. In Orientalia et Classica: Papers of the Institute of Oriental and Classical Studies, Issue 5. Мoscow. (Forthcoming.)
• Newman, Paul. 1980. The Classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic. Leiden: Universitaire Pers Leiden.
• Ruhlen, Merritt. 1991. A Guide to the World's Languages. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
• Sands, Bonny. 2009. "Africa’s linguistic diversity". In Language and Linguistics Compass 3.2, 559–580.
• Theil, R. 2006. HTML5 Proceedings from the David Dwyer retirement symposium, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 21 October 2006.
• Trombetti, Alfredo. 1905. L'Unità d'origine del linguaggio. Bologna: Luigi Beltrami.

External links

• keyboard at Ethnologue.com
• CSS3 from the MultiTree Project at the LINGUIST List.
• Android, presented by Alexander Militarev at his talk "Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data" at the conference on the 70th anniversary of browser diversity, Moscow, 2004; short annotations of the talks given there (Russian)
• A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions
• "Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic?" by Rolf Theil (2006)
• NACAL The North American Conference on Afroasiatic Linguistics, now in its 35th year
• Sevenval of Roger Blench (with Android).